Lesson #3. LEATHER. ORGANS OF THE THORACIC AND ABDOMINAL CAVITIES OF THE HUMAN BODY (8-9)

Abdominal pain can occur for a number of reasons. Dividing the abdomen into quadrants, or nine areas, can help preliminarily determine the cause of pain or discomfort. How to do this can be found in our guide below.

Abdominal pain is caused by a variety of gastrointestinal disorders, from gas accumulation (flatulence) and constipation to gallstones and duct stones or peritonitis. Understanding which area of ​​the patient's abdomen is hurting can be extremely helpful during a remote consultation with a gastroenterologist. Knowing exactly where the stomach hurts, the doctor will be able to quickly determine the cause of the disease and prescribe the correct treatment.

Right upper quadrant

Organs in this quarter: liver, gallbladder, duodenum, head of the pancreas (the part of the pancreas firmly attached to the duodenum), part of the colon.

Pain in the right upper quadrant can be caused by hepatitis (inflammation of the liver), cholecystitis (inflammation of the gallbladder), inflammation of the bile ducts (cholangitis), inflammation of the pancreas (pancreatitis), or peptic ulcers of the stomach and duodenum.

Regardless of the cause of the disease, liver inflammation is called hepatitis. Many cases of hepatitis are viral, but the disease can also be caused by alcohol, drugs and other toxic substances.

Liver inflammation can be acute or chronic. With chronic hepatitis, a person usually does not experience any symptoms. During acute hepatitis, abdominal pain, nausea, jaundice (yellowing of the skin, mucous membranes, eyes) may occur, and in more severe cases, liver problems may occur.

The most common types of hepatitis are:

• The hepatitis A virus causes acute inflammation of the liver, which in many cases resolves spontaneously without residual effects. The infection is transmitted through the feces of an infected person (due to poor hygiene conditions and habits), contaminated food and water that has not been properly cooked. Sun-dried tomatoes, fish, shellfish, and frozen berries are the most common sources of infection.
• Hepatitis B is the most common chronic asymptomatic form of abdominal pain. Hepatitis B is transmitted through blood or other body fluids. The hepatitis B virus damages the liver, causing chronic inflammation that can progress to cirrhosis and primary liver cancer. In acute hepatitis B, the course is usually violent - abdominal pain, yellowing of the skin, liver problems. Requires hospital treatment.
• Hepatitis C is also the most common chronic asymptomatic form. Transmitted through blood (highest risk for people before 1990 who donated blood or had a blood transfusion and had any surgery or dental procedures).

Types of hepatitis

Abdominal

The abdominal region consists of the digestive tract, pancreas, liver with gall bladder, kidneys, spleen, pancreas, and intestines.

The stomach is the most important part of the gastrointestinal tract. It continues the esophagus. The walls of this organ secrete a special juice, which breaks down food.

The digestive system, among other things, includes the intestines, which are the longest-lasting organ.

It is located after the stomach and includes the large, small and rectal intestines. Its purpose is to digest food and remove waste.

The largest gland in our body is the liver. Participating in digestion, it performs the necessary metabolism and is involved in blood circulation.

The liver is located below the diaphragm and consists of two parts. The gallbladder is directly connected to it and produces an enzyme necessary for digestion.

Kidneys (2 pcs.) are located in the lumbar region, regulate homeostasis and are involved in the urinary system. The adrenal glands are located directly above them.

Peptic ulcers

Peptic ulcers are lesions of the inner lining (mucous membranes) of the gastrointestinal tract that can occur anywhere in the gastrointestinal tract, but most commonly in the stomach and duodenum. The most common symptom of an ulcer is abdominal pain.

Peptic ulcers are usually associated with the following:

• The bacterium Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori). Helicobacter pylori is a gram-negative spiral-shaped bacterium that causes chronic inflammation of the stomach and duodenum and is a common cause of infectious ulcers worldwide.
• Frequent use of NSAIDs (non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs), such as aspirin, ibuprofen, ketanov, etc.
• Risk factors: smoking, alcohol abuse, stress, irregular and unhealthy diet.

Peptic ulcer

Organs of the human thoracic region

The thoracic region is composed of the following important organs:

1. Light.
2. With my heart.
3. Bronchi.
4. Trachea.
5. Esophagus.
6. Diaphragm.
7. Thymus gland.

We present in the table the features of their location and purpose:

Lower left quadrant

The organs in this quarter are the left kidney, part of the large and small intestine, and in women, the left ovary and fallopian tube.

Abdominal pain in this quarter can be a symptom of colitis, colonic diverticulosis or kidney stones, and in women can also be a sign of ovarian or pelvic inflammation.

Violations

Poor functioning of the digestive organ can be associated with several factors. The more factors that affect the intestines at the same time, the more severe the pathology and the more difficult it is to treat. The following reasons play a role in the development of intestinal tract diseases:

• genetic predisposition;
• weakened immunity;
• poor nutrition;
• bad habits;
• passive lifestyle;
• some medicines;
• intestinal infections.

The following symptoms unite intestinal diseases:

• Abdominal pain. The pain syndrome can be intense aching or even sharp paroxysmal. In some cases, it appears in episodes or is associated with food intake. In some diseases, patients can name a clear localization of pain, while in other disorders, the pain outbreak is diffuse. For example, when the small intestine is damaged, discomfort occurs in the umbilical region. Diffuse pain is more characteristic of intestinal bloating due to stretching of the walls by gases.
• Flatulence. This symptom occurs due to excess accumulation of gases. The cause of this condition may be fermentation processes, intestinal atony or decreased motor function.
• Decreased appetite. In fact, patients develop a fear of eating. This is explained by the fact that after a meal the intestines begin to actively contract and secrete digestive juices, which provokes painful attacks.
• Constipation or diarrhea.

Intestinal diseases usually develop against a background of weakened immunity

Heart attack

A heart attack is the death of the intestinal wall. Impaired blood flow can occur due to blockage or spasm. The insidiousness of this pathology lies in the difficulty of diagnosis. Without an angiographic study, it is almost impossible to make a diagnosis.

The pathology manifests itself in the form of sudden cramping pain in the abdomen, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. Given the fact that most often the disease is detected in late stages, treatment is mainly surgical. It is advisable to use conservative therapy until signs of peritonitis develop.

Dyskinesia

The pathology is based on deterioration of intestinal tone and motility. Organic damage is not detected during examination, but functional activity is significantly reduced. Dyskinesia causes indigestion. Pathology often develops against the background of neurological disorders. This is why dyskinesia is most often diagnosed in women.

Dyskinesia is divided into hypertonic and hypotonic types. In the first case, persistent spastic contractions of the intestine are observed. They can cause chronic constipation and painful colic. The pathology causes acute cramping pain in the lower abdomen and iliac regions.

The painful outbreak subsides for some time after defecation, and after eating it returns again. Chronic intoxication of the body leads to mental and physical decline in performance. With hypertensive dyskinesia, there may be no stool for several days, and then a large amount of feces is released.

With hypotension, on the contrary, peristalsis is weakened. Patients are bothered by dull painful cramps in the abdomen, a feeling of fullness, and bloating. Feces pass with great difficulty and in small quantities. This causes poisoning of the body.

Endometriosis

A benign neoplasm occurs due to the entry of endometrial cells of the uterus into other organs. Hormonal changes, hereditary predisposition, and weakened immunity play a major role in the formation of the disease. When the external intestinal muscles are affected, nausea and abdominal pain occur during menstruation. If the sigmoid colon is involved in the process, the pain attack is localized in the left lower abdomen.

The following symptoms are typical for endometriosis:

• pain in the depths of the pelvis and in the anus during menstrual periods;
• constipation or diarrhea;
• painful bowel movements;
• the appearance of blood and mucus in the stool;
• increased bowel movements during menstruation.

In women, intestinal endometriosis can cause pain during intercourse, as well as prolonged and heavy menstruation. Drug treatment is aimed at normalizing hormonal levels, since intestinal endometriosis is only a secondary process.

Colon diverticulosis

Diverticula are projections on the outside of the wall of the colon, commonly called “pockets.” The causes of colonic diverticulosis are not fully known. It is believed that the pathology may be associated with a congenital predisposition and constipation. Diverticulosis itself does not usually cause pain, but it can interfere with bowel movements, make bowel movements difficult, cause air to accumulate in the area, and cause bowel spasms, which can be painful.

Another cause associated with severe pain is inflammation of diverticulitis (diverticulosis). With inflammation, the pain is acute, severe discomfort, bloating, cramps, blood, mucus or pus in the stool may occur, and the temperature may rise. Antibiotics are usually prescribed and surgery is rarely required.

Microflora

The intestinal tract is inhabited by the following bacteria:

• lactobacilli;
• bifidobacteria;
• bacteroides;
• enterococci;
• coli;
• Proteus;
• staphylococci;
• fungi.

The first three names refer to the main group of microorganisms present in the intestines. In addition to beneficial bacteria, the microflora also consists of opportunistic microorganisms. Under the condition of strong immunity, these bacteria do not cause any disturbances in the body, but when the immune forces are weakened, these same microorganisms get out of control, begin to actively multiply and can cause serious abnormalities in the body.

Interesting! The human intestine is inhabited by microorganisms that are seventy times more numerous than the number of inhabitants of the globe.

Bacteria present in the intestines are divided into two main groups: anaerobes (do not require oxygen) and aerobes (live on oxygen). The overwhelming number of microorganisms in the intestinal tract are anaerobes: lactobacilli, bifidobacteria, bacteroides. And, for example, E. coli and enterococci are aerobes.

Kidney stone disease

This is a disease in which stones (calculi) form in the ducts and glands of the kidneys. This is a fairly common disease. Kidney stones usually do not cause symptoms until they begin to “move” and interfere with the flow of urine.

Kidney stone disease

If small stones get into the peritoneal fluid, the pain is especially severe (colic), the person sweats, gets cold, and a high temperature may rise. In such cases, the patient is hospitalized, given painkillers and antispasmodics, and given intravenous fluid infusions. If signs of infection appear, antibiotics are prescribed. If stones cannot be removed with medications, surgery is performed.

Internal male genitalia

The main internal male organ is the nut-shaped exocrine androgen-dependent prostate gland, located in the center of the pelvis near the bladder. The function of the gland is to control urination, erection, ejaculation, ensure the viability of sperm and their transportation.

The secretory and barrier functions of the prostate are distinguished. The gland produces its own secretion, which enters the sperm during ejaculation. The secretion contains enzymes, acids, immunoglobulins and other trace elements. The secretion also contains immune factors that allow the prostate to perform a barrier function, which is to prevent the penetration of pathogenic microflora from the urethra into the urinary tract and to prevent the spread of microorganisms from the urethra to the vas deferens. The presence of zinc ions in the secretion protects the male reproductive tract from infection. The work of the gland is controlled by pituitary and steroid hormones, estrogens.

The internal male genital organs also include:

• Vas deferens - their task is to transport ejaculate to the urethra, which can also be classified as a reproductive system. The ducts originate from the appendages of the testicles.
• Seminal vesicles - produce the fluid that makes up sperm. The secretion of the vesicles, containing a large amount of fructose, is “responsible” for the vital energy of sperm.
• Bulbourethral glands - tiny Cooper's glands, about the size of a pea, are located next to the prostate and secrete secretions into the urethra. The secretion of the glands lubricates the walls of the urethra and neutralizes the acidity of urine.

Menopause in men: myth or reality?

Menopause or menopause is the cessation of activity of the female reproductive glands (ovaries), as a result of which menstruation completely stops. The reason for this is the cessation or significant decrease in the production of estrogen by the ovaries. Men never stop producing testosterone and any man can theoretically become a father in old age. Exceptions include severe illnesses or congenital abnormalities that affect spermatogenesis and erectile function. With age (from 35-45 years), testosterone production begins to decline, and fertility decreases accordingly. By taking a testosterone test, men have the opportunity to evaluate their health.

A decrease in the production of male sex hormones occurs under the influence of various factors: endocrine diseases, obesity, chronic diseases, STDs, stress, constant overheating of the testicles in saunas, baths, frequent hypothermia, depression, injuries, accidents (electric shock, road accidents) and so on. Exposure to unfavorable factors leads not only to a decrease in testosterone production, but also to erectile and ejaculatory dysfunction.

Sperm formation

Spermatogenesis (production of seminal fluid) is carried out under the influence and control of hormonal substances. It begins at the moment of puberty (11-15 years), therefore, until this age, sperm are not produced in the boy’s body. When testosterone reaches age-appropriate levels in a teenager, this leads to the activation of stem cells in the testicles (spermogonia). Spermogonium is transformed into spermatocytes containing a double chromosome set. Spermatocytes divide, in turn forming secondary spermatocytes, which contain one set of chromosomes.

Spermatocytes are then transformed into spermatid cells, which undergo spermiogenesis (the final stage of spermatogenesis). Spermatid cells turn into spermatozoa, which mature in the epididymis. Once mature, the sperm are ready to fertilize the egg. The speed of sperm movement is 20 cm/h with a length of only 0.05 mm.

Indicators of ejaculate quality. Norm and pathology